Philosophy and Religion / J. C. Chatterji: Hindu Realism

Jagadish Chandra Chatterji

Hindu Realism

B—The Synthetic Aspect

The Method of Realisation.

The method of Teaching and Acquiring Wisdom. Three Steps.

16. And the pupils have always and realised the truths by following a definite method. This method consists of three distinct steps, namely:—

(i) Receiving the truths as ‘statements,’ or propositions enunciating the truths; technically called ‘Hearing’ (Shravana);
(ii) Understanding of the truths, thus received, by reasoning, i.e., by weighing arguments both against and for—technically called ‘Consideration,’ or ‘rational demonstration’ (Manana); and
(iii) ‘Realisation’ of the truths by direct experience.¹

First Step. The Propositions—How Enunciated.

Taking the first step, the ‘Hearing’ can be accomplished, that is to say, the truths as statements can be received, as is obvious, only from teachers who have already realised them as they are. What, therefore they say to enunciate the truths are the words of the Veda. Hearing is, therefore, done ‘in the Words of the Veda.’²

These truths which, following this first step, are thus ‘heard’ have been mentioned before; namely:

The five Bhutas are;
Kala and Dik exist;
Atmans are;
They are born again and again;

and so on.

Second Step. Rational Demonstration—How Done. Philosophy Is Only Rational Demonstration of Truths.

This first step of the Hindu method of acquiring philosophic truths may not be improperly compared to the first step, i.e., enunciation of a proposition, of Euclid in the matter of acquiring a geometrical truth.

When the truths are ‘heard in the words of the Veda,’ then must the pupil, taking the second step, ponder over them and try to understand them and have them demonstrated to him by reasoning. For, to be satisfied merely with hearing, would mean nothing more than vague beliefs. That his beliefs may be transformed into rational and logical convictions, he must consider all the arguments, first against, and then for, the statements. And then weighing both, must come to rational conclusions about them.

But here again, if he were to do this by himself unaided, the chances are he would go astray and would probably never be able to come to a right conclusion at all. So the Rishis, ever desirous to help man, again come forward and show the line of reasoning which may be pursued. Thus did the Rishis, Kanada and Gotama, teach. They pointed out to, and established for, deserving pupils the lines of reasoning which show how the ‘statements’ of the truths must be true, that is to say, how they can be demonstrated.³

And it is these lines of reasoning, as founded by Kanada and Gotama, which constitute philosophy, i.e., the Vaisheshika and the Nyaya.⁴

Philosophy as Reasoning and Metaphysical Truth.

Thus philosophy is not reasoning and speculation with a view to discover metaphysical reasoning, but it is reasoning with a view to logically demonstrate and understand these truths winch are already given as facts of experience, and as propositions enunciated in the ‘Words of the Veda.’⁵

Philosophy and Speculation.

Reasoning and speculation about transcendental, i.e., metaphysical truths, not already given as experienced facts, can never do more than lead us to a probability. But as often they mislead us.⁶ Then again, there is no certainty in reasoning as a means of discovering transcendental truths. What one clever man to-day establishes as true by mere reasoning, another cleverer man demolishes tomorrow as devoid of foundation. Mere reasoning, therefore, cannot lead us to certainty about transcendental and metaphysical truths. Reasoning is merely a means of understanding them. And because it is this kind of reasoning which, as stated before, constitutes philosophy, (as the Hindus understand it) the latter is also only a means of understanding, not discovering, truths.

Object of Philosophy.

This being so, the object of philosophy—as understood by the ancient teachers of India—is not the mere solution of an intellectual problem for its own sake—not the mere performance of intellectual gymnastics, with no better result than just the sharpening of the reasoning faculties, and as often the perverting of them.⁷ On the contrary, the object of philosophy is to aid suffering man to understand truth which is put before him, so that, by understanding it, he may afterwards realise it; and by the realisation of truth may become free and thus end his sorrows and sufferings. Thus philosophy is one of the most practical of all practical things, inasmuch as it is a means to the gaining of an end which is the highest that man can conceive. For this end, on the road to which philosophy is a step, is no other than true freedom, absolute independence. Philosophy is the middle step to the gaining of this end.

This middle or second step of the Hindu in acquiring philosophic truths may be compared to that step of Euclid which is called ‘demonstration’ in regard to geometrical truths.

Third Step. Realisation of Methaphysical Truths by Direct Experience—Yoga.

The third and final step is Realisation by direct experience. It is technically called Samadhi, or more generally, Yoga. And it is by this last step, that truth is really acquired and made one’s own.⁸ | ⁹ The first gives it merely as a matter of faith, the second turns it into a rational conviction, but the third alone gives the truth by experience. Neither merely hearsay knowledge, rather information, about truth, nor merely intellectual arid inferential conviction in regard to it, can possibly make us free and end our sufferings. Such information and inference are knowledge only in a secondary sense—knowledge which is indirect and theoretical. And no merely theoretical knowledge can possibly end so actual a thing as human suffering is. It is, therefore, the realization of truth by direct experience which is the only radical remedy of the ills of specific existences—the only way to freedom. And, to repeat, it is this realisation which the third step, Yoga, secures.

Yoga and Philosophy Proper.

But with Yoga we pass beyond the limits of philosophy proper—philosophy which is, from the Hindu point of view, only the demonstration, by reasoning, of propositions enunciating transcendental or metaphysical truths.

A Few of the Main Principles of Yoga.

To explain fully what Yoga really is and how it can lead to direct experience of lire metaphysical truths would mean a separate treatise by itself. Here wo can just touch upon a few of its main principles.

We find that we are aware of things by directing our minds, that is, by paying attention, to them. The greater the attention the more is our awareness of things. On the other hand, if we can withdraw our minds and attention altogether from a thing, it is not perceived at all, even if it be before us all the time.

That this is true in regard to things physical we all more or less know. But that it is true in regard to things mental also, is not perhaps so obvious. Yet many of us know that by concentrating our minds on any problem or puzzle, as much as on a physical thing, we can often have it solved as though in a flash. That such acquisition of knowledge by concentrating our minds on things mental is possible, all discoverers and inventors will probably bear testimony to.

Experiences of this kind would seem to indicate, that if we could concentrate our minds on anything to perfection, we might perhaps know all about it. I say we might perhaps know all about a thing. The Hindus maintain that we can certainly know everything by this means. For, it is after all the mind (Manas) which is the direct and immediate instrument of all experience and awareness. The senses merely assist it in its operation. But this assistance of the senses is not absolutely indispensable. It is indeed indispensable as long as the mind is not able to work, as it were, on its own account. But once it is able to do this, it can bring about knowledge and experience of things without the help of the senses.

Such possibilities of the human mind would certainly not be admitted by the vast majority of people in the West. But even scientific men in the West are beginning to turn their attention to the study of such phenomena as hypnotism, which is now recognized practically by everybody as a fact, and telepathy which some at least regard as proved to be true. These, however, are phenomena which, in the opinion of the Hindus, are only of a most elementary character and just the indications of what the human mind is capable of doing. With further studies along these lines, say the Hindus, the West may perhaps change its opinion and see, that not only in a few abnormal cases and within narrow limits can the mind of man bring knowledge and experience of things without the intervention of the senses, but that it can do so habitually and in all things. But before the mind can do this, say they, one must learn to concentrate it on anything to perfection.

Whatever the West may think about it, practically the whole of the East, where Hindu thought, including Buddhism, has had any influence, is of one opinion in this matter.¹⁰ Both the Hindus and Buddhists, who have devoted themselves to the cultivation of it from early times, maintain that concentration of the mind can be practised to absolute perfection, and that, when perfected, by its means alone everything can be known and realised as direct experience.

Yoga or Samadhi Is Perfected Concentration.

And it is this perfected power of concentration, enabling a man to realise everything by direct experience, which they call Yoga (or Samadhi.)

Yoga Is a Combination of Absolute Calmness and Most Penetrating Keenness.

But when concentration is perfect, say these people, then the mind becomes absolutely still, like a flame in a place where there is not even the gentlest breath of wind.¹¹ The simile of the flame in this connection is significant. It means that the mind, when thus concentrated and stilled is not dull and sleepy, but fully alive and most keenly penetrating.¹² Only, in this state, the mind has not the slightest flicker in it. Thus it is a combination of keenness and stillness and not the dead dull state of a stone.

Yoga Is No Idleness.

Being a combination of these two apparently contradictory aspects, it is obvious that the concentration desired cannot be gained by idleness or by anything that would throw the mind into a dull state.¹³

It can be achieved only by combining in one’s life and character those two things which can, on the one hand, sharpen the mental faculties and, on the other, quiet the heart. It is obvious that the sharpening and developing of the faculties of the mind is possible only if we exercise them; and we can exercise them, again, only if we bring them into activity by doing something that requires thought or by thinking out some problem, that is to say, by conducting ourselves so as to develop thoughtfulness in us.

Yoga Is Impossible by Leading Selfish Life.

But this conduct, leading to thoughtfulness and development of mental faculties, is generally followed with some personal motive and personal interest, as distinguished from, and considered as opposed to, the interests of others. That is to say, it is followed with what may be called a selfish motive, with Ahahkara, as it is called in Sanskrit. But as long as any selfish interest is the motive of conduct, that conduct can never give us the stillness and quiet which must be combined with keenness. By following such a conduct with selfish motives, one can no doubt develop keenness. But together with keenness there will always be disturbance in the mind, because the man, following such a course, will always have thoughts and feelings like: “oh, this is mine; I must have this; somebody will perhaps get in my way; I must fight him,” and so on. All these thoughts and ideas breed passions in our hearts; and when the passions rage, no stillness is ever possible.

How the would-be Yoghin Should Live.

To have, therefore, both absolute calmness and keenness of the mind, a man must so conduct himself in life as to do all he can to develop his mental faculties and keenness, but with a motive which is absolutely impersonal or selfless.¹⁴ The only way to accomplish this is to do faithfully and thoughtfully all that is really a man’s duty in life, and to do these duties as duties simply, without permitting oneself to think of what advantage can be personally gained by the doing of them. Nor should a man permit himself to be so entangled in thought and care about the duty that he can never put it off his mind and that it intrudes itself upon him even when the day’s work is done and he wants to think of something else. The doing of one’s real duties in this spirit will bring all one’s faculties into play and exercise and thus develop them; and as they develop, the mind will grow in keenness—one of the requisites of concentration. Such living will also eliminate from the heart all cause of disturbance, by gradually expunging from it all notions and feelings of personal and selfish interests, all thought of ‘I’ and ‘me’ and ‘mine’ as opposed to ‘you’ and ‘yours’ or ‘he’ and ‘his.’ These thoughts and feelings will never find any nourishment in a man if he keeps himself busy with duty which is done simply as duty and without any thought of personal gain or advantage. And when thoughts and feelings of personal interests are gone and therewith all cause of disturbance is removed, the heart is free from passions and therefore full of calm—the second requisite of concentration.

Thus by doing duty, as duty, and without getting entangled in it, a man can gradually develop in himself the two indispensable and yet apparently contradictory requirements of concentration. There is no other way by which this can be done, for all other ways will develop either keenness, with selfishness—with the thought ‘I, ’me’ and ‘mine;’ or, stillness without keenness, which is only dullness and stupidity.

This mode of living or conduct without any selfish interest and entanglement in it is technically called Karma-Yoga. It may be practised in various ways, but those cannot be very well explained here. All that we need to understand, for our present purpose, is simply the principle that, in order to develop both keenness and stillness together, a man must begin by living, not an idle life, but an active life, doing all that is needful and all that is duty, but only as duty with an absolutely unselfish motive, and without any entanglement in it. That is to say, he must aim at being well-nigh perfect in moral character. For, if a man can eliminate from his nature all thought of personal interest as opposed to the interests of others, and, therefore, all thought of personal gratification which may lead to the harming of any living being or to the feeding of any passions in himself, he cannot but be morally perfect.

The Foundation of Yoga—Perfection in Moral Life.

This is the one indispensable pre-requisite, and the very foundation of Yoga which leads to direct experience of metaphysical truths. It is no good talking of Yoga until this is practised, at any rate to a great extent.¹⁵ And when this is done to a large extent, a man is fit for practical concentration, which then becomes comparatively easy.

Secondary Helps in Yoga.

And to practise concentration when the preliminary qualification is gained, the man may take advantage of certain secondary aids.¹⁶ Of these there are several; but perhaps only two need be mentioned here. These are:—

(i) The regulation of diet so as to keep the body in such a state that it may not produce any feelings of dullness, stupidity or heaviness on the one hand, or too much restlessness on the other; that it may be, as it were, a most delicate and sensitive instrument, and in perfect health, if possible.
(ii) Seclusion, occasional if not permanent, from the hurry and bustle of life, in a pleasant spot, such as a quiet river bank with beautiful scenery, or a mountain, forest dale, and so on.

In such a spot, seating himself in a position which will be easy and comfortable, so that the body may not disturb or distract the mind by its discomfort on the one hand, nor send it to sleep on the other, the man shonld try to fix his thought on any object of which he wants to know the truth.

Some Results of Yoga.

When he succeeds in fixing his thought absolutely, he will know all that there is to know about it. He will, for instance, come to realise¹⁷:—

(a) That the things consist of Paramanus; he will know this by becoming actually aware of the Paramanus by means of his mind.
(b) That Akasha and the other Realities exist. These he will realise by similarly becoming aware of them.
(c) That the Atman is not the same as the body. This will be realised by separating his mind from the body, and thereby withdrawing his whole being from it as ‘the soft blade is drawn out of a grass; or as ‘a sword is drawn from its sheath,’ or as ‘a snake draws itself out from its skin.’
When he can do this he knows how experience can be had without the body.
(d) That man is born and dies again and again. This will be realised by remembering all his past lives and by being actually aware of the fact that when a man dies in one place, that which constituted his inner life in the body that is dead re-appears somewhere else.

By realising the truth of Re-incarnation and by remembering all his past lives he also realises all the Adrishta which lies behind him and may lead him to other births.¹⁸ And as he knows these Adrisbtas he meets and counteracts them in a way, which, the Hindus hold, there is, and which gives everyone his due, so that all justice is done. It is in this way that all the waiting Adrishtas are exhausted.

(e) That there are worlds and beings which are never perceived by the senses. This, again, is realised by being actually aware of them.

In this way he may realise all the facts and principles pertaining to the transcendental, that is, the supersensible, and may finally realise himself, that is to say, the Atman, as separate from, and independent of, everything else. When this is done he no longer feels that he is the body or the mind. With this realisation, all identification of himself in thought and desire with any specific form of existence ceases and the man is free.

This then is briefly Yoga, which constitutes the third step in the method of acquiring and realizing philosophical truths.

Unlike the first two, this third step in the Hindu method of acquiring metaphysical truths, has no actual parallel in Euclidean geometry. But if to the two steps already named, i.e., Enunciation and Demonstration, a third could be added, namely, Verification of the truth of the propositions established by reasoning, then the same might be said to correspond to the third step of this Hindu metaphysical method, that is to say, to Yoga.

Thus, for instance, if the proposition, that three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, as an enunciation, corresponds to the first step of the Hindu metaphysical method, and the demonstration of this proposition by reasoning corresponds to the second step, or philosophy proper as understood by the Hindus, then there might be added a third step corresponding to the Yoga of the Hindus. This step would be something like the following. Suppose, that after demonstrating the proposition, or having it demonstrated to him, a man takes a piece of paper and cuts it into a triangular shape; and measuring the angles, he finds that they make exactly 180 degrees. Such a procedure in regard to a geometrical truth, giving him direct knowledge or realisation of what was already learnt by reasoning, might be said, in a way only¹⁹ to correspond to Yoga f in the matter of transcendental truths.

The Pupil Becomes the Teacher.

When, following Yoga, the learner realises the truths by direct experience, he himself becomes a Rishi, a freed man and a teacher in his turn.

Footnotes

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